Epidemiol Infect. Figure 8. We notice that for each vaccination strategy there is a strong dependency on the month of vaccination, with vaccination done in March and December being the most effective ones. Consequently, the total disease-related cost is estimated as follow: Two types of costs intervene in the cost of vaccination: the public and the private contribution. For each strategy we have considered three periods (2018–2020; 2020–2025; 2025–2030) to take account of possible variations in vaccine wastage. In Mauritania, births are concentrated in two specific moments of the year (August–September and December–January) and movements of small ruminants are concentrated in two periods: between April and June and around Tabaski (26) whose occurrence is anticipated every year of 11 days. Vaccine financing includes the costs of purchasing and storing vaccines, and administering vaccines. Our analysis provided strong arguments in favor of the identification procedure whose contribution to the final vaccination cost (administration + identification cost) is around 20%. When the vaccine is furnished in the hospital outpatient department, payment for the vaccine is based on reasonable cost. J R Stat Soc. 2003). Figure 5C shows the daily number of new infections. Factors impacting vaccine effectiveness Host factors Age Comorbidity- including frailty/function Prior exposure Time since vaccination Vaccine characteristics Mode of delivery Live vs inactivated Vaccine composition- addition of adjuvant Match to circulating strains . Vaccination is being taken forward as the key strategy along with epidemiological surveillance to target vaccination efforts and eradicate the disease. Some vaccination centers charge an all-inclusive price for each vaccination. (A) The population in each age group by day (B) the percentage of seropositive animals in each group (C) the number of new infections by day (D) the cumulative number of PPR-related deaths by year. 11. Vienna: R Foundation for Statistical Computing (2017). All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication. Among them, due to the absence of an identification system, certain number of doses is given to already immunized animals either because they were previously vaccinated either because have already experienced the disease. Health Care Workers. Some estimates of identification cost (cid) for animals are already available and we are interested in estimating the maximal acceptable cost for screening (cs). At the equilibrium, we estimated the proportion of deaths, births, entries and exits during the last 12 months, i.e.. Where x indicates the annual number of one of the events (death, birth, entry and exit) as simulated by our model.
Sherman DM. PLoS ONE. A way to reduce vaccination costs is to reduce vaccine wastage (W), consequently administering only the effective number of doses (E). Get contact details & address of companies manufacturing and supplying Veterinary Vaccines, Animal Vaccine, Vet Vaccines across India. A pictorial representation for the “identification and screening procedure” is given in Figure 3. doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.12.013, 45. Peste des petits ruminants vaccine (Nigerian strain 75/1) confers protection for at least 3 years in sheep and goats. Symptoms appear after 4–6 days (31, 44–46), so we considered an average latent period of 5 days, whilst death can occur after 5–10 days from the onset of symptoms (9, 44, 45) and we considered an infectious period of 5 days. Our model includes some characteristics of the Mauritania husbandry practices, like births and movement's seasonality. Front. 24Reasons why there are three well-integrated components 4. However, other pathogens circulating in the region, like Pasteurellosis, could resurge after PPR eradication and disrupt the production chain. In terms of BCR vaccinating in March is the most cost-effective period, except for ST, for whom December is the best period. Solid lines indicate the end/beginning of the year, while dashed line indicates Tabaski date. Few cases and deaths were registered in the adult class. Diallo A. Spickler AR. Line colors correspond to the evaluation for different sero-prevalence values. From this page, you can get to all of the vaccines licensed in the US. Moreover, depending on the particular test used, results couldn't be immediate thus complicating the vaccination procedure. Acta Trop. However, outbreaks investigations in three Wilayas during 2012 epidemics suggest a case-fatality rate close to our estimation (range [39; 58]%) (40, 46). First, the public good nature of vaccination against diseases such as PPR, that should entail limited vaccine cost to farmers, is contradicted by the current policy of full vaccine cost recovery underway. The overall PPR vaccination cost per animal was estimated as 0.28 USD. « Back to Vaccines For Children program « Back to Immunization Managers Home page Prices last reviewed/updated: September 1, 2020 Note 1: The CDC Vaccine Price Lists posted on this website provide current vaccine contract prices and list the private sector vaccine prices for general information. Figure 3. J Biosci Med. Some information, such as staff wages, vaccine cost and small ruminant market prices, was obtained during a workshop organized in October 2015 in Dakar and completed with requests addressed to the Senegalese Institute for Agricultural Research (ISRA), which produces and sells the PPR vaccine. (2006) 18:99–103. (2014) 2:27–33. This indicates that the force of infection (λ), the rate at which the susceptible population is infected changes drastically for animals younger and older than 1 year of age: the bulk of infections occurs among the youngest groups whilst new infections among the oldest groups seldom occur. This condition can be expressed mathematically as: The maximal cost depends on the fraction of seropositive as well as the fraction of total wasted vaccine. General principles and SWOT analysis 17 2. It also needs to stored at temperatures of -78C with specially designed ice packs costing an eye- watering £50,000 each, it's reported. Technical challenges similar to the ones faced with multivalent vaccines would need to be overcome, such as the time of vaccination or the number of doses required to trigger protective immunity. The editor and reviewers' affiliations are the latest provided on their Loop research profiles and may not reflect their situation at the time of review. Fournié G, Waret-Szkuta A, Camacho A, Yigezu LM, Pfeiffer DU, Roger F. A dynamic model of transmission and elimination of peste des petits ruminants in Ethiopia. 20. (31) estimated a lower value of the PVIR threshold, around 61.7% for the Ethiopian small ruminant population. Integrating the supply chain of PPR vaccine with other veterinary or health commodities could reduce cost, as well as increase uptake. Elements in Equations (1a) and (1b) are the matrix elements for the within-young (both i,j ≤ 3) and within-old (both i,j > 3) groups, respectively, and correspond to the block diagonal elements of the transmission matrix. « Back to Vaccines For Children program doi: 10.3934/mbe.2013.10.1475, 43. A thermostable presentation of PPR vaccine (Nigeria 75/1) was adopted using a combination of TD and LS stabilizers by Mariner and co workers. The fatality rate has been evaluated as the ratio of PPR-related deaths over cases counted in a year. (2014). Received: 11 April 2019; Accepted: 08 July 2019; Published: 23 July 2019. The inset of Figure 4 shows the percentage of infected animals that subsequently die: dots correspond to the estimate of the fatality rate from data and the boxplot the estimates from the model. Munir M. Role of wild small ruminants in the epidemiology of peste des petits ruminants. The cost per QALY gained increased as the risk of hospitalization and death within each tier decreased. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0904740106, 34. On the other hand, the GSCE strategies, independently of the month, prevent the largest number of cases and deaths. Soetaert K, Petzoldt T, Woodrow Setzer R. Solving differential equations in R: package desolve. Goldstein E, Apolloni A, Lewis B, Miller JC, Macauley M, Eubank S, et al. For all strategies, vaccination should be implemented those months with highest presence of immunocompetent animals, i.e., animals older than 3 months of age and in good shape. We assumed that: with β1 ≪ β0. Berentsen PBM, Dijkhuizen AA, Oskam AJ. Where Population is the number of small ruminants estimated during the survey. The country is divided in 15 Wilayas (i.e., regions), subdivided in 44 Moughataas (departments). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0161769. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. EFSA Panel on Animal Health and Welfare (AHAW). We also assumed that the vaccination is fully successful (all the animals vaccinated end up immunized) and confers a lifelong immunity. Rev Elev Méd Vit Pays Trop. For the first 2 years of implementation, the quantity of vaccine wasted for GSCE is higher than the other allocations and in 2020 the quantity of vaccine wasted by the GSCE strategy almost doubles. The maximal cost for screening cs depends on the prevalence and the vaccination strategy. (2007) 25:5591–7. 10. At the equilibrium, we estimated, for each age-group the number of recovered animals (Ra) and the total number of deaths caused by the infection in the last year (D) among the infected animals in the last year (Z). in other parts of Africa. Virus Dis. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0149982, 17. We adapted the transmission model to account for these characteristics. Nevertheless, for small ruminants' owners, vaccinating an animal costs 0.10 USD against 1.40 USD for giving antibiotics treatment (10). In our model we have considered that GSCE strategy is applied all along the period 2018–2030 a period longer than suggested by OIE. However, considering that a single dose is 0.10 USD, almost 80% of the vaccine costs (0.40 USD) are related to logistic expenses. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. Targeted interventions, on the other hand, have the lowest administration costs and wastage, and, at the same time, the highest fraction of effective vaccination and economics benefit. GSCE-vaccination appears to be the most effective strategy in terms of deaths and case reduction. Towards the description of livestock mobility in Sahelian Africa: some results from a survey in Mauritania. Distribution of vaccine/antivirals and the ‘least spread line' in a stratified population. Among older animals, more likely to experience a sub-acute form, the fatality rate is negligible, and was set between 0 and 2%. In 2013, a PPR vaccine bank for Africa was established for the provision of high quality PPR vaccines to eligible African countries. According to the recent demographic survey done by ONARDEL3 and Mauritanian Veterinary Services, small ruminant herds are mixed (sheep and goats) with a higher proportion of sheep, reaching 70% of the herd. doi: 10.4314/biokem.v18i2.56408. • Global Strategy for Control and Eradication (GSCE): all animals older than 3 months are vaccinated during the first 2 years, followed by a targeted vaccination (ST) of animals between 4 and 12 months until 2030. Schematic representation of the cost evaluation for “identification and screening” procedure. The model ran for a set of parameters to simulate the equivalent of 100 years, with a time step of 1 day. These additional charges sometimes cost more than the vaccine. Vet. doi: 10.1007/s00705-016-3009-2, 16. The possibility of deploying this type of procedure is hindered by many factors, among them the knowledge of the actual epidemiological situation, the type of vaccination strategy and the costs related to the screening test. The latter two could change along the years. Moreover, in this work we have compared only the cost of vaccination against those of administering antibiotics and vitamins, the common practice among herders. [42.6,43.2]) along the years, while it is oscillating around the value (24.6 %, C.I[21,26.0]) for young. The benefits evaluation involves two levels: the public and the private one. In fact, because of these transboundary movements, infected and susceptible animals could be regularly introduced in Mauritania and re-ignite PPR outbreaks. However, its implementation in Mali has faced many challenges. Through the calibration procedure, we estimated the values of the fatality rates for the youngest age-groups. Gilks WR, Richardson S, Spiegelhalter D. Markov Chain Monte Carlo in Practice. Saving Lives, Protecting People. (2010) 7:873–85. Herders were chosen according to husbandry practices: transhumant or sedentary. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1711646115, 32. Available online at: https://github.com/sbfnk/fitR, 53. The best model had the lowest information criterion (DIC) (49) value. The market values of young and old animals are different, with young ones, the more susceptible, sold at lower price than older ones (ryoung < radult). Shaded areas correspond to range of vaccination wastage in that period by vaccination strategy. (2010) 116:161–5. Table 3 reports some of the survey results that have been used to calibrate the model. PPR virus (PPRV) is transmitted through close contact between infected and susceptible animals. (2008) 161:273. doi: 10.4267/2042/47951. In 2013, a PPR vaccine bank for Africa was established for the provision of high quality PPR vaccines to eligible African countries. Balamurugan V, Hemadri D, Gajendragad MR, Singh RK, Rahman H. Diagnosis and control of peste des petits ruminants: a comprehensive review. The end of March marks the beginning of the hot dry season, during which an animal's body and health conditions deteriorate, thus affecting their immune response, and herders begin leaving for transhumance. Find here Veterinary Vaccines, Animal Vaccine manufacturers, suppliers & exporters in India. The rolling mechanism of this vaccine bank ensures that the purchased vaccines are produced upon request, thereby extending the expiry date of vaccines delivered to the country. Rationale 14 1.3. El Arbi AS. (2006) 53:11–13. For SR strategies, independently of the month, the cost of vaccination campaign is always increasing. Donations from EU LSD vaccine bank and /or reimbursement for the cost of vaccines (EU + non EU MS) [IN PROGRESS] ... Report of the Bulgarian authorities for PPR seropositive animals within the PPR restricted areas 09 October 2018 Publication of CID 2018/1499 Prohibition of exit of small ruminants,semen,embryos ova and certain products thereof from Haskovo, Yambol and Burgas …
The avoided treatment expenses (BM) can be estimated from the number of cases prevented as. Only those animals with negative results will be vaccinated. 22. Prev Vet Med. Indeed, goat and sheep production ensures (an almost) self-sufficiency for the country's red meat consumption and their trade represents a major source of income contributing to almost 70% of the agricultural GDP1. 1. Dots represent the percentage of seropositive by age group, and shaded red area indicates 50 and 95% confidence interval of simulations. Diallo A, Minet C, Le Goff C, Berhe G, Albina E, Libeau G, et al. We assessed the effectiveness of vaccination strategies by assuming that the higher the cumulative number of cases/deaths averted, the “better” the vaccination strategy. ^Tabaski is the Muslim religious festivity of Aid-el-Kebir, during which each family sacrifices a sheep. Moreover, the benefits of SR strategies are the lowest among all the strategies. Since then, the disease has been considered endemic in the country. For each animal, information about species, sex, and age (based on teeth counting) were also collected. (2016) 161:2953–67. For example, the authors of Fournié et al. For SR strategies, the percentage of vaccines wasted is between 62 and 66 % depending on the month of vaccination, whilst for targeted strategies the figure lies between 20 and 35%, Reducing the wastage, through animal identification, could further increase the benefits. Emerging Infect Dis. On the day of vaccination animals were found to be negative for PPR specific antibodies whilst high titre virus neutralising antibodies were detected by second week of vaccination and reached at peak (log 4.76–5.31) on day 28 post vaccination, the day the animals were challenged, in both groups of vaccinated animals (Fig. Contract prices are those for CDC vaccine contracts that are established for the purchase of vaccines by immunization programs that receive CDC immunization cooperative agreement funds (i.e., state health departments, certain large city immunization projects, and certain current and former U.S. territories). 6. 21Regional situations 3. We imposed some transmission patterns, to reduce the number of parameters to estimate. In the Mauritanian context, the economic evaluation of PPR eradication scenario options through a cost-benefit analysis is therefore of great interest as it would inform the government about the most cost-effective choice, at community level, between financing of the vaccination campaign and the management of disease outbreaks by breeders. We ran 50 independent chains of 1,000 iterations. Four different vaccination strategies have been considered and their implementation simulated in four different periods of the year. Therefore, the vaccination-related costs can be estimated as follow: where cV = (cadm+cpri) is the total cost associated to each vaccine dose. Note: The table below reflects contracts for the 2020-2021 Adult Flu. Historically, vaccinations have saved lives and money. Menu Search. Figure 7. As of 2020, Gardasil 9 is the only HPV vaccine available in the United States. The small ruminant population (sheep and goats) demographics and transmission dynamics were simulated using a deterministic age-stratified compartmental model, without differentiating animals according to their species or their spatial location. Peste des petits ruminants virus, Mauritania. The epidemiological dynamics is coupled with the underlying demographic one, with animals dying (with natural mortality rate μ), aging (with rate ε), leaving or entering the population due to trade exchanges to and from other countries (with rate outgoing and incoming), and reproducing (with rate α). Private providers and private citizens cannot directly purchase vaccines through CDC contracts. As can be easily seen the quantity of doses distributed each year by targeted and GSCE vaccination after 2020 is much smaller compared to a random allocation. Figure 9. In the baseline scenario, where no vaccination is applied, the model predicts around 16 million deaths due to PPR before 2030. Abbreviation to define. For adults the seroprevalence is constant (43%, C.I. CGIAR Consortium for Spatial Information (2009). The random (not targeted) strategies are the most expensive in terms of vaccine-administration costs and vaccine wastage: the more vaccine doses are distributed randomly, the more are wasted. The youngest age-group (0–3 months old) accounts for the fact that a large fraction (around 92%) of newborn animals can be protected from the disease over the first 3 months of their life due to the potential inheritance of maternal antibodies against PPRV (27, 29). J R Soc Interface. Rev D'élevage Méd Vét Pays Trop. Note 1: The CDC Vaccine Price Lists posted on this website provide current vaccine contract prices and list the private sector vaccine prices for general information. X-axes correspond to the vaccine wastage, while y axis corresponds to maximal screening cost, zero value indicating that the procedure is not convenient. 28. Reducing the vaccine wastage could increase the economic benefits of vaccination. The “identification and screening” procedure is economically advantageous until its cost is < the cost of vaccinating all animals (cV*Q). We considered that animal identification is done during the vaccination. In 2018, the number of cases and deaths averted is the same for all vaccination strategies, since we assumed the same quantity of vaccine was distributed for all scenarios, and accounted for around 2,700 infections and 650 deaths averted, on average. Most of them are approved for use in sheep but not goats. Each year of the simulation (position on the y-axis), for each vaccination strategy (color) and month of implementation (type of line), we draw a segment whose ends correspond to the quantity of vaccine distributed (Q, right end) and the effective one (E, on the left). One of the most widely used PPR vaccines is the Nigeria 75/1 strain obtained after attenuation by repeated passages in cell cultures of the wild-type isolate collected from sick sheep and goats during PPR outbreaks in Nigeria . Med Decis Making. (2018) 13:0191565. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0191565, 27. Through vaccination, owners avoid medical expenses for treatments of infected animals. A study led by The Pirbright Institute has created the first framework for determining the true cost of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) vaccine campaigns based on case studies in Ethiopia. Our model considers an undistinguished population of small ruminants, divided by age group, and takes account of some demographic factors (birth seasonality, movements, and renewal dynamics) ruling small ruminants' dynamics. In our model, logistic costs were not detailed. Data on herd demography, which include deaths, births, purchases, and sales of small ruminants were collected in 2015 through a survey among all the Wilayas, except the Nouakchott district (investigated Wilayas are the colored ones in Figure 1). Preliminary analysis of serological data showed that the percentage of seropositive steadily increases for the age-groups (3–6; 6–12 months) and subsequently flattens for older groups. Mauritania geographical extension and the distribution of supporting infrastructure for maintaining the vaccine cold chain, constrain the number and the duration of field missions by Veterinary Services. Vaccination wastage impacts the vaccination costs for a percentage varying from 20% (ST March) to 66.6% (SR in July). We initially run the baseline scenario, where no vaccination is implemented. The PPR Global Strategy for the Control and Eradication (GSCE) is composed of 4 necessary steps: 1-Assessment, 2-Control, 3-Eradication, and 4-Post-eradication follow-up (11). The BCR estimated for GSCE strategies in our model varies between 19.4 and 24.9 depending on the month of implementation. Moreover, we notice that the quantity of vaccine wasted (W) is much smaller for targeted (ST) vaccination than any other vaccination strategy: less vaccine is wasted. 21. (2018) 13:e0190296. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005049. Maximal Screening cost per animal by vaccination strategy and period. The maximal screening costs for strategy, decrease during the three periods, except for the SR strategy. 11:30-13:00 • Current PPR Vaccines and needs for improvement Adama Diallo, IAEA • Thermostable PPR vaccine: application of rinderpest Jeff Mariner, Tuft experience t to PPR thermostable vaccine production • PPR thermostable vaccine research in IVRI Rabindra Singh, IVRI • Thermostable PPR Vaccine and optimization Ana Carina Silva, IBET Specific PPR tools: PMAT, PVE, Vaccines, regional vaccine banks, OIE PPR standards, diagnostics assays, PPR-GREN Global Early Warning System (GLEWS) 22 Evaluation and country PPR stage ranking Regional PPR roadmaps – PMAT – regional Advisory Groups . Covid-19 (Coronavirus) Tests Price in India State-wise: The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has left it to state governments to decide the cost of Covid-19 tests. As reported in Supplementary Table 2, we found that the median value of R0 is around 2.9 (95% C.I. We sampled from the posterior distribution of the parameters (α, μ, μ5, incoming, outgoing) using Metropolis-Hastings algorithm, assuming uniform priors. This discrepancy could be related to the fact that estimation of PPR-related deaths wasn't confirmed by diagnostic control but based on surveyed recollection of previous year's PPR-related events. Find here Veterinary Vaccines, Animal Vaccine manufacturers, suppliers & exporters in India. The equilibrium distribution has been used as the initial state for all the simulation of the baseline (no vaccination) and vaccination scenario. Studies on the chemical effect of stabilizers on PPR vaccines have shown that lactalbumin hydrolysate sucrose (LS) and trehalose dihydrate (TD) allowed higher stability of lyophilized PPR vaccine [66, 75]. Finally, Figure 5D shows the year-cumulative number of PPR-related deaths. (2002) 64:583–639. In all scenarios, vaccine is given to animals older than 3 months of age, since younger age animals might be protected by maternal antibodies and still have an immature immune system (11, 28). Zahur AB, Irshad H, Ullah A, Afzal M, Latif A, Ullah RW, et al. Consequently, identified animals are also vaccinated ones. The Tabaski-related peak of movements accounts for one fifth of the annual volume of animals traded and outbreaks are reported during this period. Funding support for the PPR vaccine bank for Africa was provided by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. (31). New search features Acronym Blog Free tools "AcronymFinder.com. Despite the similarities with rinderpest, the PPR eradication strategy should take account of some characteristics of small ruminant production that could hinder the process: the small ruminants population is much larger and grows faster than that of cattle; small ruminants have a lower socio-economic value and consequently less investments are made for their health; small ruminants can be sold more easily to cover household needs, and can be traded in large flocks (16). The vaccine is the only way to combat the disease by controlling and subsequently eradicating it. The calibration provided estimations for the demographic and epidemiological parameters. Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) is a viral infectious disease affecting domestic (goats and sheep) and small wild ruminants (1, 2). Identification cost (cid) amounts to 0.10$ per animal, thus contributing to 20% of the cost for vaccinating and identify animals (cid+ cV) that is, in most of the cases (not for the target strategies), less than the fraction of wastage.